Center for Distance and Independent Study
American Government, One Half Unit

Commentary

Government influences many aspects of your life. For instance, when you purchase gas at a filling station, you will pay a little more than the actual cost of the gas as a result of a tax imposed by the government. The government funds the roads on which you drive, using the proceeds of such taxes. If you should happen to be in a car accident while on the road, police and fire fighters will arrive at the scene, fulfilling yet another function of the government, to protect the health and welfare of the citizens. To prevent future accidents, the city council may require the installation of stop signs at the intersection where you crashed, making the community safer through public policy. As you can see, government can affect your daily life.

Purposes of Government

According to your textbook, the government has several purposes. A primary purpose is resolving conflict. The structure of government allows us to make decisions in an organized fashion without riots or chaos. Another purpose is providing public services. The public service may fill a need for people who are unable to provide for themselves, such as welfare or health care. The service may be something that government can afford but individuals could not, such as building and maintaining roads or transportation systems.

Providing for national security and defense is an important purpose of government. For example, the war on terror that America has waged since the attacks on September 11, 2001, is intended to ensure the safety of the nation. Directing public policy is also a function of government. Public policies are supposed to achieve the goals of the nation. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act calls for the yearly testing of students to determine their progress. This law was not passed simply to burden children with more tests. The goal of the public policy is to ensure that every child receives a quality education.

Finally, preserving our national culture is a purpose of government. Holidays such as Independence Day, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, and Memorial Day are examples of how the government officially recognizes the people and events that are uniquely American.

Forms of Government

Forms of government have evolved over time, based upon the power structure. We will look at two different categories: where the power is located and who holds the power.

Where Power Is Located

Unitary, confederate, and federal forms of government are determined by where the power is located. In a unitary government, the power is located at the national level, as in the United Kingdom (Great Britain). The legislature at the national level, the Parliament, makes the laws that govern the country. Local counties have the power to make laws, but only because the national government allows them to do so. In other words, the powers of local government are derived from the national government; they are not guaranteed in a constitution.

A confederate government is one in which power is located at the state level. Therefore, each state is sovereign (self-governing) and rules itself. Before the U.S. Constitution was written, America was a confederacy under the Articles of Confederation. Each state made its own laws. The national government was weak, because its powers were limited by the states. In fact, Congress had to beg the states for tax money, a practice that met with little success.

In a federal government, the power is divided between the state and national governments. The U.S. Constitution created a federal system in America. The national government has powers delegated to it by the Constitution, and the states have powers reserved especially for them. Some powers are shared by both. The following activity illustrates where power is located in unitary, confederate, and federal systems of government.

Who Holds the Power

Autocratic, oligarchic, and democratic forms of government are determined by who holds the power. An autocracy is "rule by one," such as a monarch or dictator. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler is determined by inheritance. In other words, a king or queen is born into the job. In a dictatorship, the ruler is determined by force. A dictator takes power through force and usually maintains it that way. For example, in North Korea, Kim Jong Il has ruled through force and intimidation.

An oligarchy is "rule by a few," such as aristocrats or theocrats. An aristocracy is ruled by a small group of nobles or elite. A theocracy is governed by a group of people according to the rules of a particular religion. For example, the Taliban, a group of Muslim leaders, ruled Afghanistan according to their interpretation of Islamic law.

A democracy is "rule by many," such as a direct democracy or a republic. In a direct democracy, the people have a direct say in laws and rules. Every citizen votes on every issue. A republic is a representative democracy. The people elect representatives to speak for them and to make and enforce laws. These representatives answer to the people. The United States is a republic. We elect people to represent us in making and enforcing our laws.

Nations may be a combination of these forms. For example, Great Britain has a unitary structure but is also a representative democracy. (See the graphics below.)

Autocracy: Rule by One

• Absolute Monarchy: ruler acquires power by inheritance and has absolute power over all subjects.
  
  
  
  
• Dictatorship: ruler acquires and maintains power through force and has absolute power over all subjects.
  
  
  
  

• Aristocracy: a small group of nobles or elite rules.
  
  
  
  
• Theocracy: a small group of religious people rule according to the beliefs of a particular religion.
  
  
  
  

• Direct Democracy: people rule directly rather than electing representatives.
  
  
  
  
• Republic (representative democracy): people delegate authority and responsibilities to elected representatives; representatives answer to the people.
  
  

Principles of Democracy

The United States is structured as a federal system as well as a republic. The democratic roots of America adhere to the five principles of democracy as outlined in your textbook:

1. Equality of all persons: Every person is equal under the law. This does not mean that all people have the right to own the same amount of property or to be paid equally. Rather, this principle means that every citizen is entitled to the same rights and privileges under the law. It also means that everyone is subject to the same laws and penalties.
2. Individual rights: In a democracy, individuals have rights and freedoms that are protected from the government. While the government is structured to serve the common good, rights such as the freedoms of expression and of religion are guaranteed.
3. Equality of voting: Every citizen's vote is equal. In other words, people who have less money than others do not have less of a vote. Likewise, people with more money or power do not have a more "valuable" vote. Each citizen is afforded the right to vote, and each vote counts as one.
4. Majority rules and minority rights: In a democracy, laws are passed by the majority of people. However, the majority cannot silence the minority. For example, people who vote for a losing candidate are not forced to leave the nation for fear of being punished or tortured. The citizens in the minority are guaranteed their rights.
5. Consent of the governed: The power of the government is based upon the agreement of the people. The government is legitimate only because the people agree to it. If the government decided to silence all people who disagreed with it, a rebellion would likely arise to overthrow it.

The framers of the U.S. Constitution incorporated these principles into the Constitution, some to a greater degree than others. For instance, at the time of ratification, women did not have the right to vote, slavery existed, and only land-owning males could vote. While our country was and is not perfect, these principles are the ideals that we strive to achieve as a nation.

Foundations of American Government

A variety of sources influenced the framers of the American government, including ancient and Enlightenment philosophies as well as early British and colonial documents.

Ancient Philosophy

Classical republican theory influenced the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Proponents of classical republicanism believed that the purpose of government was to promote the common good, or what is good for society as a whole. For example, the ancient Roman Republic limited people's individual rights in order to make sure that they focused on the common good. Citizens were not supposed to work to advance themselves but rather to help society as a whole.

Classical republican theory depended upon three conditions in order to be successful:

1. First, citizens must practice civic virtue, performing good deeds for society rather than for their own interests. An example of civic virtue is working in the local food bank in order to help the needy. (On the other hand, performing court-ordered community service does help society, but it would NOT be civic virtue, because it is being done to fulfill a personal obligation.)
2. Next, citizens must be educated in a common morality. In other words, they must share similar beliefs and pass those on to their children.
3. Finally, classical republicanism could work only in a homogenous community in which people shared a similar background, religion, ethnicity, and education. The Roman Republic eventually disintegrated, because people formed factions (groups of people working in their own interests).

As you will see in the next lesson, despite these challenges, James Madison integrated into the U.S. Constitution the republican ideal of government working for the common good.

Enlightenment Philosophy

Figure 1.1: A portrait of John Locke.

In Two Treatises of Government, Enlightenment philosopher John Locke outlined the natural rights philosophy. This philosophy was based upon the idea that all people are born with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. He theorized that before government existed, people lived in a state of nature, the condition in which there is no government. In a state of nature, only the strongest and smartest have power. I would be perfectly free to take something that belonged to someone else, if I could, because no laws would exist without government. However, someone stronger or smarter than I am could take that same object from me, and I would have no recourse.

Locke theorized that people consent (agree) to be governed in order to protect their natural rights. In other words, I agree to give up the right to do whatever I please (i.e., take your property) in order to receive the protection of a government that would keep people from taking my life, my liberty, or my property. While I no longer have the freedom to take someone else's life, liberty, or property, no one else has the freedom to take mine.

Locke, as well as philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Henri Rousseau, proposed that a social contract exists in which people agree to be governed, as long as the government protects their natural rights. However, if the government fails to do so, the citizens have the right to revolt or rebel in order to establish a government that will protect life, liberty, and property. This is the social contract theory.

Montesquieu, another Enlightenment philosopher, admired the British system of separation of powers. He identified the powers of each branch of government: the legislative branch made laws, the executive branch enforced laws, and the judicial branch interpreted laws. Montesquieu believed that this separation would prevent the government from abusing the rights of the people and would keep any branch from becoming too powerful. The branches of the U.S. system are structured this way.

Early British Documents

The Magna Carta, signed in 1215, ended the absolute monarchy in England, guaranteed rights to noblemen, and established limited government. The principle of limited government means that the people control the amount of power government wields. The Petition of Rights of 1628 established rule of law, under which both the government and the governed must obey the law. The English Bill of Rights of 1689 further limited the power of the monarch and expanded individual rights. The principles of limited government and rule of law are found in the U.S. Constitution, as you will discover in the next lesson.

Colonial Documents

The framers of the Constitution drew from the tradition of democracy in the colonies as well. The Mayflower Compact, an agreement among the Pilgrims, was the first social contract formally signed in America. It established a written form of self-government for the Plymouth Colony. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut was America's first constitution calling for an elected assembly of legislators. In addition to these documents, the colonies established legislatures that gave colonists experience in self-government.

The influence of the social contract theory is evident in the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson wrote, as one of the self-evident truths, "…that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness…." Jefferson asserted that by virtue of being human beings, people possess natural rights. (He did choose to say "pursuit of happiness," though, rather than "property," to ensure that no one thought the new government of the United States intended to provide people with property.)

After establishing the existence of natural rights, Jefferson maintained that people agree to government for the sole purpose of protecting those rights, "…That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…." Jefferson then reaffirmed the right of the people to revolt if the government fails to protect the people's natural rights;"…That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government…."

The Declaration of Independence is clearly a descendant of the social contract theory developed by Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau. It lays the philosophical foundation for the purpose of the United States government.